Human Facial Expressions and Emotions Essay Example for Free

Human Facial Expressions and Emotions EssayTo accept that the implications of human emotions are planetary is indeed very extensive. It speaks to an riposte that is deeply entrenched in human nature and it is by no means a trivial question. Much research has been conducted in this national of emotions finished the analysis of s solutionh cranial nerve smells, categorizing rise into two primary categories those in favor of the catholicity of emotions, known as the universality thesis, or those in favor of heathenish influence on emotions.While it has been largely accepted that there is a basic universal language in the field, the bulk of the debate centers on where just factors controlling expression of facial expressions lie on this spectrum. on that point is undeniably overwhelming evidence in support of the universality thesis with both soft (judgment studies) and quantitative (muscle unit measurements and brain mapping techniques) data however, one could not over look the behavioral and anatomical evidence in favor of coating-specific expressions.Therefore, universal emotions whitethorn serve as a very ingrained framework among all humans yet, it is ethnical differences that fine-tune this structure into the emotions each individual expresses. Introduction to Universality Thesis The Darwinian Hypothesis tenets for the Expression of Emotions The Work of Charles Darwin. Many of the ideas that Darwin formulated in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals have led to this field of research. On the books intimately basic level, he defended that emotion expressions are evolved and adaptive (Hess Thibault, 2009).However, Darwin also posits three crucial principles from which many of the subsequent fundamental questions and debate over emotions and their purpose stem. The Principle of Serviceable Habits. As Hess and Thibault (2009) note, this eldest principle takes a Lamarckian view of the inheritance of emotions genetic ally through the result of habits. Darwin explicitly underscores the concept and force of habit. It also speaks very much to the functionality of emotions and their expressions, although most of them are vestigial.However, these traits could still be observed in animals because the civilization of humans would crush such instinctual tendencies. A common example is that of rage and aggression as a playful sneer or ferocious snarl (Darwin, 1872) reveals animal descent. The Principle of Antithesis. In a reversal of the first principle, the second principle asserts that some expressions are so directly opposite to nature that the only means is that of communicatory communication (Darwin 1872).This makes the expression almost analogous to the voice for the purpose of intercommunication. It is worth noting, however, the Darwin extends this principle to not only states, but to traits as well (Hess Thibault, 2009). For instance, Darwin (1872) postulates that the enigmatic exploit of a gaping m starth could indicate a feebleness of character. Such actions eventually become ingrained through habit. The Principle of the Direct doing of the elicit Nervous System on the Body.This final principle that Darwin outlines could be considered the direct product of the nervous system. Therefore, some expressions occur to balance excess emotions. For instance, consider the besotted nature of laughter (Hess Thibault, 2009). Heckler (1873) proposed that laughter could in fact be a protective reflex that compromises the excess of the circulatory and respiratory systems through the animosity of vasomotor nerves. The work of Darwin and universality thesis will later by revived in the late 1960s and early 1970s by the judgments studies of capital of Minnesota Ekman.Evidence in Support of Universality Evidence derived from Judgment Studies Introduction. The universality thesis is most contingent upon judgment data, evidence of observers seeing the same emotions in all faces (Ru ssell, 1994). Paul Ekman is largely considered to be the pioneer and preeminent scholar in the field of emotions, and his judgment studies with overwhelming evidence supporting the universality of facial expressions are frequently cited in subsequent studies on this topic.The earlier view before studies conducted by Ekman and Friesen from the late 1960s was that facial expressions completely differed from culture to culture (La Barre, 1947). With Ekman and Friesens groundbreaking work on the constancy of facial expressions throughout cultures in 1971, however, the tremendous evidence has persuaded much of the psychology world to accept the universality thesis although skeptics still remain (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Pan-cultural udgment studies. Among the first of these pan-cultural judgment studies was conducted by Ekman, Sorenson, and Friesen (1969) in New Guinea, Borneo, Brazil, the United States, and Japan where they found evidence in favor of pan-cultural elements in facial displa ys observers in these cultures were able to recognize similar emotions in the a standard set of photographs. They first obtained samples of photographed facial expressions that were free of cultural differences.The issuances, too, were carefully selected as data needed to be collected from virtually isolated preliterate societies to eliminate the variable of mass media (Ekman et al. , 1969). Photographs of Caucasiansmale and female, adult and childrenwere used, all of whom were professional and critic actors. The observers observed primarily the preliterate societies from New Guinea and Borneo, two isolated communities that required translators. 1 The emotion Happy (H) was most universally recognized with tremendous truth in responsesUnited States 97 H Brazil 97 H Japan 87 H New Guinea 99 H (Pidgin) and 82 H (Fore) and Borneo 92 H. Fear (F), however, seem to generate a more varied response between different cultures, with Surprise (SU) and Anger (A) as answers as wellUnited State s 88 F Japan 71 F, 26 SU New Guinea 46 F, 31 A (Pidgin) and 54 F, 25 A (Fore) Borneo 40 F, 33 SU.There were also variations within Disgust-Contempt (D) with some mixtures of A and in the Borneo society, even H A embroild some D and F SU included F and A, which these variations occurring primarily in the isolated societies and finally, Sadness (SA) was some times interpreted as A, with A being the only given response in the Fore group of New Guinea. While there is certainly evidence for some basic universality, Ekman, Sorenson, and Friesen attributed the discrepancies to language barriers and task unfamiliarity in the illiterate societies. Flaws and how they were by and by addressed.Ekman and Friesen (1987) later published a study in which they acknowledge some flaws of previous judgment studies. With respect to the study above, three problems that limited them are (1) there has only been one such study, (2) not all six emotions were accurately recognized, and (3) the facial expres sions were posed as opposed to spontaneous (Ekman Friesen, 1987). In response to the stand firm criticism, Ekman and Friesen (1972) designed a study of facial expressions shown by Japanese and Americans while watching stress-inducing films of body mutilation and neutral films of natural andscape. When subjects from each of the two cultures viewed the films in the absence seizure of a scientist with a hidden video camera, the facial expressions from both groups were virtually identical when viewing the same films in the presence of a scientist, however, the Japanese tended to clothe negative expressions with smile, lending support to the presence of cultural display rules when different cultures manage and mask universal expressions.The primary criticism, however, was (1) again, there has only been one such study, and (2) the films only elicit two emotions (disgust and fear)other universal expressions were not determined for (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Later studies, however, involvin g photographs of facial expressions shown to observers of across 12 literature cultures found very high accordance by multiple researchers including Ekman, Friesen, Sorenson, and Izard (Ekman et at. , 1969 Izard, 1971).The multiple replications of this design lends to its credibility (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Universality of the recognizing color. Ekman and Friesen (1987) seek to further extend their basic judgment studies by testing for quaternary different hypotheses of cross-cultural agreement for (1) single-choice judgment tasks (2) the strongest emotion (3) the second strongest emotion and (4) strength of emotion. The nations that were chosen included 8 different languages from both Western and non-Western countries.In (1), the single-choice judgment task that replicated previous studies, once again, produced accurate results in terms of the percentage of subjects in a country correctly identifying with a predicted emotion. For instance, two examples include Happiness, in wh ich the percentage ranged from 98% (Scotland) to 69% (Sumatra) for Surprise, 94% (Japan) to 78% (Sumatra), while Sadness, ranged from 92% (U. S. ) to 76% (Turkey). Overall, the emotional term chosen by the majority of the subjects in each culture was accurate 178 out of 180 times.Hypothesis (2) was also supported 177 out of 180 times, the emotion that was judged to be the most self-aggrandising by the majority of each culture was also the predicted emotion. Hypothesis (3), which predicted the universality of the secondary emotion, was sustained as well in every culture, there was complete agreement about the secondary emotion signaled by expressions of disgust and fear. The results for sadness and surprise, however, were too infrequent to be conclusive (5 out of 30 opportunities and 8 out of 30 respectively).Further research needs to be conducted to determine the cause for this discrepancy (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Hypothesis (4) required subjects to judge the intensity of emotions o n an 8-point scale (1-slight, 4-moderate, 8-strong) to predict the universality of judging. This, according to Ekman and Friesen (1987) however, led to inconclusive results. Using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), F(54,2743)=3. 95, signifies a moderate association between culture and intensity judgments.However, instead, the six univariate tests ranged from 2. 3 in Sadness to 6. 66 in Surprise, indicating that there are significant differences among cultures in this respect. These differences, according, to Ekman and Friesen, could have 2 possibilities (1) politeness and a greater uncertainty about a foreigner or (2) the language barrier, as observers had make judgments in language other than English (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Nevertheless, with three of these hypotheses confirmed, the evidence for universal facial expressions is undeniably overwhelming despite these flaws.Evidence based on Facial Action Coding System (FACS) and Action Units Introduction. Based on t he evidence for the presence of six basic emotions across cultures,happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust and surprisequalitative descriptions of facial muscles associated with each of them have been identified. For instance, happy expressions include tense lower eyelids, brocaded cheeks and lip corners pulled up, while sad expressions include inner eyebrows raised and drawn together, and lip corners pulled down (Kohler et al. 2004). Based on such observations, Ekman and Friesen (1978) developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) by identifying the presence of action units (AU). They serve as the standard set of facial expressions. Target AUs in universal emotions. Kohler et al (2004) sought to identify which AUs characterized the four universal emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. A total of 128 images of emotional expressions were used in a sample of 105 subjects from Drexel University.Of these subjects, 63 were men and 42 were women. There were also 71 Caucasian , 9 Africa-American, 4 Hispanic/Latino, and 21 Asian-American participants, indicating ethnic diversity. They were then asked whether each facial expression matched the target emotion. FACS ratings revealed that uniquely absent and generate AUs were found for each emotion (Kohler et al, 2004). In Happy, the presence of AU 6, 7, and 26 was ositively associated with happy recognition, and determined that the presence of 6 increased recognition four times in Sad, AU 4, 17, and 25 were positively while 15 was negatively associated in Anger, AU 4, 5, and 16 were positively while 23 was negatively associated2 and in Fear, AU 5, 1, and 26 were positively while 4 was negatively associated. By defining expressions quantitatively with unique muscle patterns over a diverse subject group, the universality thesis is further strengthened. The 2004 Athens Olympics Game.Psychologist David Matsmoto3 (2006) conducted a field behavioral study of the facial expressions displayed by medal winners of th e judo competition during the 2004 Athens Olympics Games using F F ACS. With judo photographer Bob Willingham, they captured the spontaneous reactions of 84 medal winners from 35 different countriesthe most diverse ethnic group in a spontaneously intense emotional field studyat 3 different times (1) when they completed the match, (2) when they received their medals from the dignitary, and (3) when they posed on the podium.Matsumoto (2006) found that independent of cultural backgrounds, there are very specific facial expressions that occur in emotionally-charged contexts. This study was designed in response to some criticisms of judgments studies and previous field studies conducted in other sporting events including bowling and soccer (Kraut Johnson, 1979 Ruiz-Belda et al. , 2003). A crucial concern about judgments studies held in laboratories is their posed stimuli and artificial nature because they lack the investigation of the expression within a social context (Matsumoto, 2006 ).While later field studies were conducted in effectuate to address this concern, there were three flaws that Matsumoto (2006) in turn addresses. The first two are the strength of the elicited emotional responsea factor that is not intense enough with bowling spares and strikesand the time allowed for expressions to unfold. The third and most important aspect of the study was the type of smile elicited in the social context, something that Kraut and Johnson (1979) had failed to distinguish.Matsumoto determines two types of smiles the Duchenne smile and the non-Duchenne smile the former is associated with enjoyment and the latter is associated with playfulness or social convenience even though the person does not feel positive emotions. While Ruiz-Belda et al (2003) uses the FACS, which detects the muscle movements associated with these smiles, they were not differentiated. In order to isolate photos or victory, Willingham took pictures from the gold and bronze matches (Matsumoto, 2006), the most emotionally intense matches as they both occur at the margin the former wins the first come out while the latter made the cut for a medal. Negative emotions of defeat were searched for in silver medal winners and athletes who placed one-fifth. Again, as aforementioned, it is important to distinguish the clock of emotions, as the first expressions upon completing a match are often the most instinctual and natural ones.Thirteen out of 14 gold medalists and 18 out of 16 bronze medalists smiled for a total of 31 smiles of those 31 smiles, 29 were Duchenne and 24 were open-mouthed. In the defeat silver medalists, none smiled and 1 of the 26 fifth placers smiled. Instead, 43% of silver medalists and 35% of fifth placers showed sadness, 29% and 23% showed nothing (respectively), and 14% and 15% showed contempt (again, respectively). Upon receiving the medal, which is a much more public event than initial expressions, 54 of the 56 athletes smiled.All 14 gold medalists (12 open-mouthed), 6 silver medalists (out of the 14), and 20 bronze medalists (out of 28) had Duchenne smiles. Cultural differences were tested for, but none were found. In the final situation, the most public of the three, the athletes expressions were taken on the podium. Again, all the gold medalists smiled only 9 silver medalists of the 14 smiled (only 5 of these were uncontrolled, of which 3 were controlled Duchenne) and 26 bronze medalists of the 28 smiled (13 of which were open-mouthed and Duchenne).Interestingly in this last scenario, cultural differences was evident gold and bronze medalists from North America-Western Europe and East Asia were much more prone to displaying Duchenne smiles (96%) as opposed to gold and bronze medalists from other countries (47%). This study of facial expressions further reinforces the notion of universal emotions. Because no other emotion other than the Duchenne smile was prominent in these expressions of victory, the data suggests that it may b e the only facial marker of the joy of victory (Matsumoto, 2006).Matsumoto then proposed an evolutionary reason why this may be the case along the lines of behavioral ecology facial expressions provide rapid means of communication, and it may not have been absolutely adaptively necessary to communicate variant emotions of enjoyment. However, while this last point is highly speculative, the data that Matsumoto provides for universal facial expressions, which were displayed most prominently in more private settings but still detectable in more public ones using FACS, is very thorough and convincing.

Cultural Assumptions and assessment for understanding of Burns’ Perspective Essay Example for Free

ethnical Assumptions and sound judgment for understanding of Burns Perspective EssayThe speaker system unit was addressing a homegrown Indians, most likely her mother. The speaker was trying to trace her culture and trying to differentiate it from her physical and characteristic behavior. In this address the speaker is trying to recall her native individuation as American Indian and specifying that it is Native American. It appears the mother was American but the father was Indian. (Burn 741) The poem has the humor in the of living in identity denial yet when the speaker seem to be very much aware of the culture of her identity such as archery practice, stoic lay out and not drinking a lot. This forms the first theme of this poem of cultural identity denial even though in that respect are physical and behavioural attributes that are associated with the Indian native culture. The speaker consider the Indian rugs very cheap as compared to the American rugs, thus the speaker does not want to be identified with them . (Burn 741) The second humor that is in this poem is the manner in which the speaker is addressing the mother, especially when referring to the father. The speaker is referring to the father as an Indian lover to the mother.The speaker makes it more humorous by perceiving and elaborating how tight the father and the mother were before the speaker was born. This is the second serious theme in the poem. (Burn 741- 742) There are original phrases that are repeated through out the poem with respective effect. The Yea Uh-huh phrase is repeated in the phrase as a scone and laugh at the issues in the theme such as culture and identity. It is use by the speaker to make humorous asserting and make a sense of denunciation to the listener. The No phrase has also been used at the beginning of the phrase to vehemently deny the Indian identity and culture in the poem.The Oh phrase has been used in the middle of the poem to pour scone on the relationshi p that existed between the parents. Other commonly repeated phrases are the I dont and I didnt. These are use for the function of reinforcement and utter dissociation. .(Burn 741-742) Cultural Assumptions and assessment for understanding of Cofers Perspective The tone of this poem is a gamble, with a prayerful wish, to some extent very desperate full of identity hope. It is a gamble as the identity of God is put of debate by the Latin women.There is a prayerful wish as these women are religiously attending the church prayer sessions. Finally the desperate tone is seen at the end when they are not sure if God is or can be bilingual. (Cofer 780). Cofer relates the issues of race in the reference of God as being of Anglo identity with a Jewish heritage even though they pray in Spanish. Therefore the races hare are Spanish, English and Jews The issues of class are related to in the reference of the great white father as well as the church environment which as marble that signify efflue nce.There is debate close the identity of God. The issues of women run all through the poem from the Latin women who pray to the end of the poem where they pray to their dedicated saints such as Margarita, Josephina, Maria and Isabel. (Cofer 780). Cultural Assumptions and assessment for understanding of Hughes Perspective I am a student who does not see myself from the color perspective but from the opportunities to be what I am and can be in future. I appreciate other irrespective of their colors. I do not disregard others capabilities along color lines.I am aware that life is a learning experience that will give everybody a chance to live their dreams with disregard to colors. These are the aspects that are covered by the speaker. (Hughes 935- 936). The writer complication is the assignment that was given active who they are as blacks yet the tutor is white. This assignment in itself is judgmental hence the complication on the writers side. The writing assignment is fulfilled wh en the writer goes to an isolated place at the institution and describes their identity on personal and in relations to others in the society.The righter specifies that it is not possible to dissociate others because of their colors. (Hughes 935- 936). The speaker happens to be the only black student in their class, perhaps the oldest at twenty two years and feels discriminated for the color identity. The speaker also describes the way to the institution as mostly affluent and inhabited with whites. The speakers response to the question of whether the white paper will be colored when writing is negative. (Hughes 935- 936). The tone of line 27- 40 is one of defiance. The speaker wants to be considered and an American, just like the others.The speaker is also defying the past treatment of dissociation from the rest of the society. The tone is also one of collectivisms when the speaker wants to be considered as an American. (Hughes 935- 936). The instructor will start a whole new perc eption about the identity discrimination that exits in the society at the moment. The Instructor will be touched and filled with guilt about the past occurrences of the have happened at the learning institution. The instructor will also commend the writer bravery and resolve and will most likely grade it as excellent.(Hughes 935- 936). Cultural Assumptions and assessment for understanding of Byatts Perspective Daphne is a very sympathetic character. She never goes to the city prom to shop and does not know so much of the place. The married man Dollo always leaves her home and feels she is much more comfortable with the domestic chores that with the urban shopping amble rendezvous. She is also very unaware of the risk of the city Mall security and get all her essential property such as passport stolen when she leave them lying carelessly at the Mall.( Byatt 502-504). She gets into trouble when she cannot pay for the lowering baggage of shopping at the end of the tour and get more worked up and desperately arrested. All the other ladies did not go round the Mall with her hence she looses directions throughout the session . She is unable to prove her identity and will most likely be identified as a shop booster unless her husband comes for her. ( Byatt 502-504). The antagonism arises between Daphne and the policeman when she is found lost in the perimeter. She has not been able to pay for the product.She claims her property has been stolen including her passport which is her first step of identification. On arrest, she resists and believes she is not a criminal and will wait for her husband to come out with proof. But this is not resolved as the policeman is impatient there is nobody coming to her rescue. Eventually she must have given in to the arrest. ( Byatt 502-504). Cultural Assumptions and assessment for understanding of Divakarunis Perspective The practice of the pre-arranged marriages has long grow in the Indian culture.I thin it should be left upon t he lady to decide who to marry, when to marry, how many children to have and after what duration. (Divakaruni, 214- 215). Sumita initially cries of it as she does not have a chance to choose her groom. She also is not for the idea of going to America as she finds the culture quite conflicting with her current beliefs. However Divakaruni explores Sumitas new life experience from the cloth point of view. As soon as Sumita is married, she gets a whole new experience that ranges from how women in America dress, candy kiss in public and socialize in the community.This is quite a shift from the normal Indian culture including drinking. (Divakaruni, 214- 219) The Author weaves into the first section to show that everything is in order according to the Indian culture of pre-arranged marriages. The reader will initially see no signs that there are other controversial themes such as the pre-arranged marriages and the roles of the parents on such occasions. In this fist section, the author dw ell on the traditional Indian clothes exposition especially the ones worn by the brides in the wedding day. (Divakaruni, 214- 215)Somesh was initially characterized as well able man who is kind and decent and a provider. Later Somesh turn out to be a characteristic American with drinking and dressing practices that are not well known by the parents. Somesh was also considered a caring man by the parents. He was a very good singer. (Divakaruni, 214- 215) Works Cited Byatt. Baglady 1998. p. 502 504. Burns, Diane. Sure, You Can Ask Me a Personal Question. 1981, p. 741-2 Cofer, Judith Ortiz. Latin Women Pray. 1981, p. 780. Hughes, Langston, Dinner Guest Me. 1965. p. 898, 935. Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee. Clothes 1990, p. 214

An Introduction To Rational Choice Theory Philosophy Essay

An Introduction To demythologized Choice hypothesis Philosophy EssayPublic administrative agencies expect really distinctive styles of decision making often depending upon the type of leadership or organizational structure. The literature suggests the decision making process in the public administrative sphere involves more(prenominal) complexity, dynamism, intervention, and interruption than those in their private counter part (Rainey, p. 160). Public administrators argon primarily held accountable by the people they serve in their communities therefore, utilizing the most logical, effectual style of decision making is sought out by public agencies. Decision-making issues are closely related to power issues, because power determines who gets to decide (Rainey, p.160). Bureaucracies produce normally used the discerning Choice conjecture in their decision making processes. For the purposes of this assignment, the Rational Choice supposition has been chosen for examination.T hrough examining the four components of the Rational-Choice surmise Model, theorists have think that this style of decision making is not sane. This model has proved to be problematic because it is not realistic, too time consuming, too costly, and too strict. Theorists such(prenominal) as Herbert Simon opposed this style of decision making claiming that it leads to bounded acuteity which in conclusion leads to satisficing. Bounded Rationality and Satisfying are two public administrative terms that will be explained later on. Conducting an analysis of Rational-Choice Theory, one mainly encounters criticisms of the model in literature.In this expression Stephan clarifies saneity by providing an explanation of the introduce assumptions in Rational-Choice Theory. The embedded assumptions of rationality are the primaeval subject of this phrase. Quackenbushs central joust is that much of the criticism of rational extract possibility is based on a basic mis taking into custod y of the assumption of instrumental rationality-which is, after all, the rationality of rational pick possibleness (Quackenbush, p. 2). In this article, the author has discusses the reference of assumption in hypothesis as well as the assumption of rationality in rational pickaxe theory.The author utilizes confirmable seek from some(prenominal) theorists to explain how the postulate and the criticisms have evolved with Rational-Choice Theory. Quackenbush strengthens his argument with a discussion regarding three applications of rational choice theory in international relations and demonstrates ways that rational choice theorists themselves have potentially added to confusion about the assumption of rationality (Quackenbush, p.2).Quackenbush presents research from policy-making accomplishment theorists such as Donald Green and Ian Shapiro, and Walt Friedman regarding rational choice theory that pull aheads it abundantly clear that this model has been debated in other are as of amicable sciences. Green and Shapiros research of rational choice was conducted in the realm of American politics. Green and Shapiro concluded their research with test illustrating the rational choice model had not advanced the confirmable study of politics as it had initially promised. Walt conducted a recapitulation of several formal rational choice works in an attempt to demonstrate that they have yielded trivial results, have not been empirically tested, and that empirical tests, when used, have been constructed sickly (Quackenbush, p. 2).Quackenbush attempted to clarify the usage of assumptions in rational choice theory. The empirical works of Green and Shapiro assisted Walt in proving that rational choice is not just now one theory but an come on to theory. An assessment of Quackenbushs article, generally say, may be the fact that rational choice theory theorizes that individuals use rationality to make choices and that individual theories are more of a concern than the rational choice model itself.In exploratory rational choices record, Green and Shapiro paying attention merely upon the extent to which theorists present empirical evidence about the outside of an event that is evidence. Evidence, on this view, consists in a fit between the presumptions of rational choice theory and observed institutional or airal outcomes in any particular case. In what follows we will refer to empirical evidence of this sort as finite external.However, we argue that rational choice is also conciliation by its failure to provide kind of empirical evidence, namely internal or interpretive evidence about the beliefs of the agents whose accomplishments comprise the phenomena to be explained. Our distinction between external and internal evidence maps on to the well-known distinction between a behavioral and ultimately positivist conception of political science and a hermeneutic or interpretive one. Internals explanations do not claim access to private ps ychological states they are internal only in the sense of being internal to the world of meanings inhabited by the actor.Monk-Hampsher and Hindmoors research does, however, assume the devils advocate role towards the end of the article demonstrating how the rational choice theory is valuable in circumstances in which interpretive evidence cannot be relied.Scholarly ThemesThe idea of this article is based on the concept that the rational choice theory misses the interpretive evidence and the research to find out the reality that the empirical research does play any role in the credibility of the rational choice theory.Green and Shapiro demonstrate that the largely achievements of rational choice theory are in fact profoundly fly-by-night and that fundamental rethinking is needed if rational choice theorists are to supply to the indulgent of politics. Green and Shapiro show that empirical tests of rational choice theories are disfigured by a series of mechanical defects. These defect s flow from the characteristic rational choice impulse to defend universal theories of politics.An individual assessment of Hindmoors book review may lead to the belief that Hindmoor seems to disagree with Green and Shapiros thoughts that rational choice theory has been heavily criticized because it is mis beneathstood. Hindmoor explains that Green and Shapiro theorize that the problem lies with rational choice theorists and rational choice models, not with actual rational choice theory. Hindmoor may find Green and Shapiros research to be contradictory but acknowledges the importance of their work which it has been powerfully stated in the literature generating significant controversy.The theme of this book is based on the factors of reliability, validity and empirical evidence of the Rational Choice Theory. In this article the major concerns are the study of the collective action, the behavior and attitude of political parties politicians and phenomenon of voting cycles and the P risoners problems. It has also been evaluated in this article that if rational choice theories are to contribute to the understanding of the politics then deep suspect and the fundamental rethinking is required.This article is a scholarly work dedicated to examining the primary features of rational choice theory with keep to Lakatos research program and Laudans research custom. The analysis in this article expose that the thin rationality assumption, the axiomatic method and the diminution to the micro level are the only features shared by all rational choice models. On these grounds, it is argued that rational choice theory cannot be exemplified as a research program. This is delinquent to the fact that the thin rationality proposition cannot be understood as a hard spirit in Lakatos terms. It is argued that Laudans conception of a research tradition better diametriciate rational choice theory.Rational choice theory or rational actor theory (RCT) is a common draw nearly in dif ferent fields of social logical research. Broadly speaking, RCT can be differentiating as the maturity of models based on the hypothesis of rational actors. In this article, the nature of RCT is evaluated in more detail. Green and Shapiro suggest that they believe RCT should become a more coherent research program with a hard core if Lakatos terms are used.An assessment of Herne and Setelas article reveals their motivation for conducting this research lies within the context of the actual role of rational choice theory in the political arena. Herne and Setela disagree with Green and Shapiros strategies and convey that the development of rational actor theory would only be hindered if it were based upon a particular definition of rationality.Scholarly ThemesThe article theme is based on Post hoc theory development and domain restrictions.post hoc theory development is not necessarily harmful, if conceptual clarity and testability are preserved. scarcely on contrary, post hoc theory development can lead to innovative model building. Beside this the domain restriction is also not a goof schema because it kills the innovative theory building by restricting the domain of application.Librarians at the Bounds of Rationality How Bounded Rationality Can second Us answer Others, by Samantha Schmehl HinesHines, S. S. (2009). Librarians at the Bounds of Rationality How Bounded Rationality Can Help Us Help Others. behavioral and Social comprehensions Librarian,28(3), 80-86. doi10.1080/01639260903088927Social Science theorist, Hebert Simon, claimed that Rational Choice Decision Making resulted in bounded rationality, a theory that explains how the rationality of decision making is special based on the make sense of information one may have. Simons theory is the topic in Samantha Schmehl Hiness article, Librarians at the Bounds of Rationality How Bounded Rationality Can Help Us Help Others.Central ArgumentIn this article, Hiness is clearly an advocate of bounded rati onality describing it as a helpful concept used to identify and predict behavior with decision making. Hiness central argument focuses on how and why bounded rationality is beneficial in predicting human behavior.Summary of WorkHines uses the criticisms of Rational Choice Theory to build her argument that bounded rationality is a better mode of decision making. Bounded rationality is a perception used in the social sciences to help classify and predict how individuals make decisions. An offshoot of rational choice theory, bounded prudence accounts for the fact that completely rational decisions are not executable in practice and states that individuals use heuristics, or rules based on past experiences and information, to make decisions. Bounded rationality can explain how our users create heuristic shortcuts to alter the decision-making practice and deal with the multitude of choices and information available. This concept article will describe bounded rationality, apply bounded rationality to aspects of library service, and discuss the mathematical use of the concept as an assessment tool for our services.Hines uses librarians and their daily operations in an attempt to prove that Simons theory is helpful in two different realms of study Social Sciences and Human Behavior. Hines explains that daily practices such as collection development and reference review are implicated in the decision making processes of our daily lives. Collection development and reviews of reference books, articles, journals etc are two elements of bounded rationality that draw attention to the resources individuals have at their clearance for making rational decisions. Hines argues that becoming aware of this progression will benefit the decision making process.Scholarly ThemesThe theme of this article is based on the idea that the individuals rationality is limited because of the available information, cognitive limitation of their minds and the limited time for decision making. So they use the techniques based on their experiences in past.Rational Decision Making in Business Organizations, by Herbert A. SimonSimon, H. A. (1979). Rational Decision Making in Business Organizations.The American Economic Review,69(4), 493-513. Retrieved April 8, 2010Herbert Simon, a theorist who has analyzed Rational Choice Theory in six-fold areas of study, seeks to examine the theory from an economical perspective in the article, Rational Decision Making in Business Organizations.Central ArgumentThe central theme of this article is focused on the concern of the important colonial territory known as decision theory. Simon discusses the normative and descriptive aspects and its applications to business organizations linking his theories sticker to the core of the political economy.Summary of WorkSimon states economics has focused on one aspect of mans decision making and that one focus had traditionally been his power. Furthermore, Simon explains mans reason had typically b een studied while making decisions in times of scarcity. Simon steps out of the traditional realm in his research viewing decision theory as not being limited to the domains of political science, psychology, and sociology. He explains that the classical model of rational choice calls for all the knowledge of alternatives that are open to choice. Simon explains, in compliance with most of his research on Rational Choice theory, the possession of complete knowledge is not rational or feasible.Simon uses the works of theorists such as Henry Schultz to provide examples in explaining the more refined aspects of studies conducted within the physical sciences. From a government policy making perspective, Simon reveals the eloquence of the body of descriptive theory (i.e. descriptive statistics) and how quantitative research has been beneficial to normative economics. Although Simon is clearly an advocate of his many another(prenominal) of his colleagues equilibrium theories, he offers an explanation that some of the more refined parts of this study may not be completely beneficial in the real world.Simon says in his article that when we find the discrepancies between theory and data, we try to magical spell rather then to rebuild from the foundations.He argues that we have large quantity of descriptive data from field as well as laboratory. A moment of theories have been formed to account for this data. But these theories are not coherent. In one way or other, these incorporate the notions of the bounded rationality. Bounded rationality authority the need to search for decisions alternatives, the replacement of optimization by targets and satisficing goals and the mechanism of learning and adaptation.Scholarly ThemesThe theme of this article is one with something can not be thwarted with nothing. You cannot neat a measure or a candidate by pointing his/her defects or inefficiencies. An alternative must has to be offered.Do Sunk Costs Matter, by R. Preston Mcafee and Hugo M. Mialon, and Sue H. MialonMcafee, R. P., Mialon, H. M., Mialon, S. H. (2007). Do Sunk Costs Matter?Economic Inquiry,48(2), 323-336. Retrieved April 8, 2010Central ArgumentAuthors R. Preston Mcafee, Hugo M. Mialon, and Sue H. Mialon present research examining how people make decisions specifically in the realm of drop down costs in the article Do Sunk Costs Matter therefore, their research focuses on economics.Summary of WorkIn the outline to of this article the authors identify change posture costs as costs that have already been incurred and cannot be recovered. That sunk costs are not related to rational decision-making is often accessible as one of the basic principles of economics. When people are influenced by sunk costs in their decision-making, they are said to be think back the sunk cost fallacy. Contrary to conventional wisdom, we argue that, in a broad range of situations, it is rational for people to condition behavior on sunk costs, because of informatio nal content, reputational concerns, or financial and time constriction. Once all the elements of the decision-making environment are taken into account, reacting to sunk costs can often be unstated as rational behavior.Another argument presented in this article is the idea that decisions based on future prospects, past decisions, scarce resources and infinite time, and reaction to past decisions and the sunk costs they have entailed, is often rational behavior.Scholarly ThemesThe theme of the article is when people engage in this type of behavior it is not rational and they pull in a sunk cost fallacy.Sunk cost is the basic theme of this article in which the authors have discussed that the people might rationally invest more if they have invested more in the past, because it might convince that high past investments would lead towards the closer success. The reaction of people has been discusses for investments in regard to the sunk cost.Simons visit or Incommensurability and Sati sficing, by Michael ByronByron, M. (2005). Simons revenge or, incommensurability and satisficing.Analysis,65(4), 311-315. Retrieved April 9, 2010Central ArgumentMichael Byrons article, Simons Revenge or Incommensurability and Satisficing, is another analysis of the Rational Choice Theory based on Herbert Simons criticisms of the theory. Byron provides a discussion focused on Simons solution to the Rational Choice Model of Decision Making. The central theme of Byrons article is about Simons coined term, Satisficing, and its potential in lot as an alternative model to Rational Choice Theory.Summary of WorkByron explains that Simon thought for large-scale decisions, the deluge of relevant information and uncertainties overload the cognitive message of managers to process it. Managers strive for rationality therefore, they tend to be rational. However, Byron uses Simons argument to strengthen his research by explaining cognitive limits, uncertainties, and time limits cause decisions t o be do under conditions of bounded rationality. They do not maximize in accordance with rationality assumptions instead they satisfice. To paraphrase Bryons argument, satisficing is a term meaning what we do when we make the outgo of what we can. This is the reality of decision making. Satisfice is the combination of two words satisfy and suffice.Byron explains Simons alternative model of satisficing does not require maximization such as Rational Choice Model. Simon saw maximizing had failed therefore, his revenge, or model of satisficing, was designed to garner success outcomes descriptively. Byron argues Simon designed this alternative model by making it cognitive demands nominal, simplify its value function, and completely eliminated the probabilities of the model.Scholarly ThemesThe idea of this article is Satisficing. Managers try to be rational but due to limitations they have to be bound rational in their decision making to provide satisficing decision and alternatives.A B ehavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action, by Elinor OstromElinor Ostrom. (1998). A behavioral approach to the rational choice theory of collective action presidential address, American Political Science Association, 1997.The American Political Science Review,92(1),1-22. Retrieved April 9, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID26931044).Elinor Ostroms article, A Behavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action, is presented in Chapter 16 of Michael Dean McGinniss book entitled Polycentric Games and Institutions Readings from the Workshop in Political Theory and polity Analysis.Central ArgumentOstroms research regarding the Rational Choice Theory and decision making is based on her argument that the theory is effective if expanded into a behavioral model of collective action when making decisions in times of social dilemma. This is the central argument of her research.Summary of WorkOstrom explains that Rational Choice Theory ass umes that humans are self-interested, maximizers. Her research argues that Rational Choice has been successful in predicting marginal behavior in competitive decision making but when it comes to victimisation this theory to predict decisions that are made during social dilemmas it has proved to be ineffective. Extensive empirical evidence and supposed events causing change in multiple disciplines motivate a need to develop the range of rational choice models to be used as an establishment for the study of social dilemmas and cooperative action. later an introduction to the problem of triumph over social dilemmas through collective action, the leftovers of this article is divided into six sections which include theoretical predictions of currently accepted rational choice theory related to social dilemmas, challenges to the sole reliance, empirical findings that begin to show how individuals achieve results that are better than rational, the possibility of developing second-generat ion models of rationality, an initial theoretical scenario, implications of placing reciprocity, reputation, and trust at the core of an empirically tested, behavioral theory of collective action.The implications of developing second-generation models of empirically grounded, bloodedly rational, and moral decision making are substantial. New research questions will open up. We need to expand the type of research methods regularly used in political science. We need to increase the level of understanding among those enmeshed in formal theory, experimental research, and field research across the social and biological sciences.Scholarly ThemeThe main themes of the article are rational choice models, empirical evidences and theoretical development. The mentioned themes can be used to expand the variety of the rational choice models so that the study of the social dilemma and collective action can be carried out.To vote or not to vote the merits and limits of rational choice theory, by A ndre BlaisBlais, Andre. To vote or not to vote the merits and limits of rational choice theory. 2000. USA University of Pittsburg Press.Central ArgumentVoter turnout and our reasons for voting have been exhaustively examined in the literature however, Blais expresses his dissatisfaction of what has been presented in the literature about voting. The central theme of Blaiss research is whether or not the decision to vote or abstain from voting evolves from a rational choice perspective.Summary of WorkBlais strengthens his argument by pointing out that rational choice authors have admitted a problem with exist voting and rational choice perspective because voting is a paradox of superstitious response. Blais concludes his argument, after two solid years dedicated to this topic, with the view that the Rational Choice Theory does make a real contribution to understanding of why people vote but the contribution is quite limited.Blais uses Green and Shapiros infamous critique of the Ratio nal Choice Theory to compare his verdict of the actual role Rational Choice plays in ones decision to vote. Green and Shapiros research blatantly stated the Rational Choice Model had failed to contribute any advancement of the empirical study of politics. Blaiss verdict is not as harsh and contrary to his colleagues findings. Blais uses a strong example to prove his point stating that motivations that make people vote, such as civic duty, are far from Rational Choice that claims people are self-interested. In Blais comparative analysis of his verdict to Green and Sahapiros, he stresses that political science offers many reasons to not vote. The fact that people still make the decision to vote is irrational. After Blaiss research, he candidly reveals that he cannot make sense of why people vote without taking the Rational Choice Model into consideration. Since most citizens vote despite even when it is not in their best personal interests to do so is a fascination that only Rational Choice Theory can explain.Scholarly ThemesIn the book, the author is focusing on the reasons for the choice for roll the vote. Voting and rational choice theory are interlinked and only this theory can explain it.CONCLUSIONThe 10 articles examined for the purposes of conducting a miniature literature review of Rational Choice Theory clearly indicates that this theory is of the most powerful in the field of social sciences, especially political science. An immovable effort was made to garner research that presented different perspectives about the effectiveness and feasibility of Rational Choice Theory.Rational Choice Theory has been criticized for being unrealistic. In decision making, Rational Choice is thought to be too time consuming, too costly, and too strict. The literature has criticized the theory for not taking human intuitive behavior into consideration. Furthermore, many theorists and researchers are not satisfied with Rational Choice Theory because it neglects empirical research.On the other hand, many theorists believe in Rational Choice Theory to explain things such as voting phenomenon. People vote inspire of the fact it may not be in their personal best interests. some theorists believe only Rational Choice Theory can explain and predict this type of behavior. Other theorists believe the theory can be fortify through incorporation of behavioral models.Overall, Rational Choice Theory has been approached with skepticism by theorists. The theorys validity and reliability has been questioned because of its lackadaisical approach to include empirical research. This argument seems to be the central theme of a vast majority of the research on Rational Choice Models. Theorists wonder what Rational Choice should do when empirical anomalies arise. Although there are many critiques for Rational Choice Theory, but still it is helpful in many fields such as to understand the rational of voting, in business organization etc.

The Significance Of The Dorado Sequence

The Significance Of The Dorado SequenceIn Candide by Voltaire, describes the transformation of the protagonist Candide, throughout the story. The author demonstrates the character schooling over the story starting with an innocent personality as a child who does non contri providede responsibility to know, into a great man who experience the look means. Basically Candide endures the human suffering to get his final destiny. During his crossing candide visited many cities which make him have different point of view about life experience such as El Dorado. It was a great place totally different from the residue of cities. In the story the language shows Candides progress towards maturity.When Candide was expulsed from the rook for his love to Ms. Cunegonde, he experimented a cruelty period of life. But it help him to face the philosophical view that all topics in life are incumbent for some greater good. As said his best friend and philosopher Pangloss. ,He sees that everyth ing does not materialise for the best as the philosophers and metaphysician Pangloss had told him in the Barons castle. (Philip Littell)Throughout Candides travels he develops a new school of thought of life, his eyes open to reality.In the story El Dorado have a big role in Candide ideologies about life. People in El Dorado have different carriages of thinking and priorities with Europe or visitors. I simply cant understand , said he, the passion you Europeans have for our sensationalistic mud but take all you want, and much good may it do you.( Candide,408).El Dorado habitants know how the outsiders over appreciate money and gold. Also , stack from there ,know that materialistic things are all important(predicate) and indispensable for the visitors and most of the time the and focussing to meet happiness for a while they have those valuables were worthless for them. In constrat el Dorado is the notion of emotions such as love and care are freely chosen. People in El Dorado v alue the species and fellow human rather than having wars against each other for a ridiculous argument and ambition of possessing all the materialistic objects.Moreover, El Dorado is a sincerely simple and humble city, where people do not need unrestrained things, they only have the essential things and there are no disagreements between them, poverty is nonexistent. Cacambo its true my friend it again, the castle where I was born does not par with the land where we now are but Miss Cunegonde is not here.(Candide, 408).In this quote I could perceive the reason of candide to leave el Dorado, it was Miss Cunengonde. Candide was in reality in love with her and he wanted to be with her. The love of both was not accept for their different social classes. Candide to get his change goes through many adventures and step by step matures into an experienced and practical man. Finally, he decides to settle down and live by farming his own garden-this symbolizes his surrender to simple self -preservation and candide said that we must cultivate our garden.(Voltaire 30,438) afterwards a long and difficult struggle in which Candide is forced to overcome misfortune to find happiness, he concludes that everything is not as good as it seems the way Dr. Pangloss, his tutor had taught him. Another important point in El Dorado is that people shared their belongings and there is no such a feeling as avarice and envy in this place. Even though the residents of El Dorado do, they do not have an organized religion and do not commit in a religious persecution. None of the inhabitants they all believe the same thing. In order Voltaire remarks that unlike Europe and the rest of the world in El Dorado people are free to follow and express their own faith and not be afraid of future consequences of others disapproval. Furthermore, in El Dorado there are not courts or prisons beca role everyone acted with a good attitude toward each other. By the way, their system of education is well organized and advanced compare to the rest.Unfortunately, the rest of the world is really different from El Dorado. In this part of the world we can see a lot of violence, corruption and misfortune thats why El Dorado tries to keep forth from the rest of the world, because habitants does not want to be infected with this style of life. Everyone wants to been in a community without those problems, because the environment plays a big role in the way we live and, also in the way we interact with the others. Instead of living in an infected world we should be looking for a better lifestyle. We only request of your majesty, Cacambo said, a few sheep loaded with provisions, some pebbles, and some of the mud of country.The king laughed.I simply cant understand, said he, the passion you Europeans have for our yellow mud but take all you want, and much good may it do you.(candide, 408)In addition, El Dorado dont need of gold and jewels to been happy like the rest world, that the main priori ty is have more and more money to be happy. A great and important value from the habitants of El Dorado is that al ways they demonstrate love, valuate and confidence to their children and community. One thing important that i learned of the book el dorado is that they always is important show love, respect and confidence to their children and community and the thing materialistic dont need been the most important to them. In contrary, the rest world teach to children that materialistic things are important to reach the happy and I believe that is great problem that present the society today because they dont found confidence, respect and love. Then they use drugs to gain attention from their parents, because their parents dont have communications with them. Many teens use drugs because they are depressed or think drugs will help them escape their problems. El Dorado contrast to the rest of the world in many different ways one is that rest word is materialistic and the effects that cause a society materialistic are the use drugs, alcohol and crime. It is the same as our dependency to all the materialistic things in the world. In addition, rest world have become extremely addicted to the material world. People El Dorado is different because they are peace-loving people determined to live a life of simplicity, sheltering themselves from the outside world to better focus on the spiritual world. The most important for El Dorado community is that they want to feel better of follow with the values of their community.Candide listened attentively and believed innocently for he thought Miss Cunegonde extremely beautiful, though he never had the courage to tell her so. He concluded that after the happiness of being born Baron of Thunder-ten-Tronckh, the second degree of happiness was to be Miss Cunegonde, the tercet that of seeing her every day, and the fourth that of hearing Master Pangloss, the greatest philosopher of the whole province, and consequently of the whol e world (candide 1, 378)During his adventures he realize that things not always happen for the best, he understand that it just happen in his innocent mind. El dorado have a great important to one of some changes of Candide was his philosophy really optimistic mind everything is for the best. It was a phrase of his teacher Pangloss He taught that everything was for the best and Candide, having never heard any other philosophies, agrees blindly. In his amazing journey he finds that every event in the world has a reason, and whether there are positive or negative moments you have to live them.

Unusual Presentation of Ewing’s Sarcoma

Unusual Presentation of Ewings SarcomaD.V.Prasad1, Sanjay Mulay2, Krishna Badgire 3, *Abhinav S.Jadhav4, Deepak Datrange5, Sagar Jawale6, Arun alex7ABSTRACTEwings sarcoma is a broad(prenominal)ly malignant, polish cell tumour of uncertain origin. It is the sixth most common malignant neoplasm of bone. It must be distinguished from chronic osteomyelitis and other malignant round cell tumors corresponding lymphoma, metastatic neuroblastoma and small cell osteosarcoma. Most patients are amid 10 to 25years old rarely patients are younger than age 5 years and erstwhile(a) than age 40 years. We report a 55 years female who presented with swelling over discipline shoulder with pain and unfitness to move right shoulder later diagnosed as Ewings sarcoma of proximal part of humerus right side. The earlier diagnosis at this age may help in split management of the condition and prevent further complications and have better prognosis.KEY WORDS Ewings sarcoma, Primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET), Ewing family of tumors (EFT), round cell tumor.INTRODUCTIONEwings sarcoma is a highly malignant, round cell neoplasm of uncertain origin. It is the sixth most common malignant tumor of bone 1. Most patients are between 10 to 25years old rarely patients are younger than age 5 years and older than age 40 years. The present report is about rare presentation of Ewings sarcoma in a 55 years old female who presented with swelling over right shoulder with severe pain and inability to move right shoulder.CASE REPORTA55 years old female, housewife, was presented with progressive swelling over right shoulder and difficulty in shoulder movements. chunk was accompanied with severe pain which increased gradually over a period of 6 months.On examination, she was an average built female with swelling over right shoulder and upper part of right sleeve. Swelling was of 25x20cm size. It was a solitary swelling with local rise of temperature over swelling. Swelling was tender and prot ean in consistency. It was a non-mobile swelling. Redness and prominent superficial veins were visible over swelling over right shoulder and upper part of arm (Fig.1). Her haemoglobin levels were decreased and she had elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). Her renal function tests and liver function tests were towards lower normal range.X-ray right shoulder with arm shows round lytic lesion in head and upper part of humerus (Fig.2). MRI of right shoulder joint was suggestive of a 8.76.76.5 cm well defined, lobulated, expansile, lytic, lesion involving head and proximal shaft of right humerus, causing thinning and erosion of the cortex with breach at few places and narrow zone of transition, adjacent soft tissue extensions with dropsy and moderate right shoulder joint effusion. These findings are suggestive of Neoplastic mass involving proximal humerus with pathological fractures (Fig. 3)Histopathology report shows sheets of small round cells with hyperchromatic nuclei, con densed chromatin and meager eosinophilic cytoplasm with vaculisations with unremarkable bony trabeculae (Fig.4). Immuno-histochemistry is suggestive of Vimentin, CD99, S 100 positive and AE1/AE3 focally positive. Cytology report was suggestive of cytomorphological features positive for malignancy (Fig.5).Fig. 1 clinical photograph of patient showing right shoulder swelling. Fig.2X-ray right shoulder showing round lytic area in upper end of humerus.Fig. 3 MRI right shoulder T1W,T2W and STIR images showing expansile, lobulated, lytic lesion involving head and proximal part of humerus.Fig.4 Microscopic picture (40X) showing sheets of small round cells with hyperchromatic nuclei, condensed chromatin and panty eosinophilic cytoplasm.Fig.5 Cytology report showing cytomorphological features positive for malignancyDISCUSSIONIn 1918 Arthur Purdy intrepid described a tumor composed of small round cells with rose windows in Ulnar nerve 2, later on it became known as Primitive neuroectoderma l tumor (PNET). James Ewing described a tumor of diaphysis of long bone composed of undifferentiated cells and the tumor was radiosensitive 3. Earlier Ewings sarcoma (ES) PNET were described as two separate entities, but in 1975 Angervall and Enzinger described unnecessaryskeletal tumor resembling to ES 4and Jaffe et al. wrote an article on the neuroectodermal tumor of bone in 1984 5. Now it is known that ES and PNET show similar translocations and are considered to be ends of histological spectrum of Ewings family of tumors (EFT). outline of molecular techniques not only provided better understanding of biology but also help in developing better techniques in diagnosis and equivalently potential treatment.EpidemologyEFT comprises 5 to 10 % of total bone tumors and is the 2nd most common tumor of childhood 6. It occurs predominantly in young adults and children and shows a polished predilection for males 7.75% cases are seen between 10 to 25 years age of life. Youngest case r eported so far was of 4.5 months old 8 and oldest case reported was 61 years old. Infancy cases are to be differentiated from metastatic neurofibroma.SitesIn 55% long bones it is usually diaphyseal lesion but also metaphyseodiaphyseal lesion chiffonier be seen. Flat bone (pelvis and ribs) involvement can also be seen. Less common sites of occurance are skull, vertebra and scapula.Presentation of Ewings sarcomaPain, Swelling and fever are the presenting symptoms. X-ray shows permeative pattern of bone involvement (boundary between uninvolved bone and area of bone destruction and bone is broad, vague imperceptible). All types of periosteal reactions seen like onion peel, moth eaten, honey combed, fine and reticulated 1.BiopsyIdeally core biopsy is done, if repeated attempts of core biopsy fails open biopsy is done. FNAC not recommended in case of Ewings sarcoma. Frozen section studies opted in selected cases only as freezing of tissue distorts the morphology. Fixation of tissue is d one in 10% formalin. Inadequate fixation leads to loss of antigen, so inconclusive results on immunohistochemistry and also causes autolysis and degeneration of DNA thus making molecular abstract difficult. Ratio of specimen to formalin is 110.HistologyIt is prototype of small round cell tumor growth. It is composed of sheets of small cells with increased nuclear to cytoplasm ratio. Cytoplasm is scanty, eosinophilic, and detected by periodic acid Schiff (PAS), contains glycogen and diastase degradable. Occasional rosette formation are seen and frequently undergoes necrosis and residual viable cells show perithetiomatous or perivascular distribution.EFT tumor cells can be large with irregular nuclear tissue layer and prominent nucleoli 9. EFT cells show membrane expression of CD99 /MIC 2 on immunohistochemistry 10. Antibody against FLI-1 is seen in nucleus of tumor cells which is specific for diagnosis of EFT 11. Tumor cells may show nerve cell specific enolase (NSE), synaptophysin and s-100 protein.Family of EFT includes -1)non hodgekins lymphoma 2)rhabdomyosarcoma 3)synovial sarcoma 4)messenchymal chondrosarcoma 5)desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) 6)retinoblastoma.False positive cd99 screening is seen in other cases as well hence CD99, FLI1 and NSE to be positive for diagnosis of EFT/PNET.Molecular geneticsTranslocation t (1122) (q24q22) is seen in 85 % cases. Fusion of EWS gene on 22q12 with FLI-1 on 11q24 results in chimeric fusion reproduction EWS-FLI1 12. EWS-FLI1 induces insulin like growth factor (IGF-1). Phospholipase D2 (PLD2) and Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 (PTPL1) are expressed in increased levels. Thus tumor cells escape from apoptosin and growth inhibition.Therapeutic targetsEWS-FLI1 fusion is to be targeted and split. Monoclonal antibodies against IGF -1 are being tried as it is associated with EFT growth 13 and PLD 2, PTPL1 are other conceivable candidates as both are highly expressed in EFT 14.Chemotherapy in ESThere is no univer sally accepted staging. American joint committee on cancer (AJCC) suggests that primary bone or extra skeletal Ewings sarcoma may be included with their respective bone or soft-tissue sarcoma staging (STS) systems 15. Although AJCC staging includes metastatic disease and tumor size great or less than 8 cm nodal status and grade are irrelevant for ES because it rarely spreads by lymph nodes and by definition of ES is high grade tumor 15. Most of centers use presence or absence of metastasis at the time of diagnosis, as main tool for planning the treatment.Prognostic factors 1) tumor site and size 2) age and gender 3) serum LDH levelsES in distal extremity has better prognosis than proximal extremity. ES in aboriginal location (pelvis) has worst prognosis 16 17 18. Tumor volume 100-200ml- large tumor has bad prognosis. Girls have better prognosis than boys 18. Increased serum LDH levels at time of diagnosis with large tumor with metastatic disease has worse prognosis. Metastasis in lungs alone has prognosis better than metastasis in extra-pulmonary sites. Patient with minimal tumor or no residual tumor after preoperative chemotherapy incline towards better prognosis.Evolution of chemotherapy Adjuvant therapy Vincristine + Actinomycin D + Cyclophosphamide (VAC).Intergroup Ewings sarcoma take apart (IESS) VAC + doxorubicin. IESS trial II demonstrated that intermittent high doses of VAC + doxorubicin was superior to continuous moderate dose therapy with this agents 19.VAC+ doxorubicin alternating with Ifosfamide and Eloposide (IE) has better prognosis. There is no use of dose intensification.Current tendencyAlternating cycles of VAC IE every 3 weeks for 48 weeks with local control at 9-12 weeks 20 is to be administered. There is no role of dose compression (decrease in duration of cycles).There is some role of stem cell in preliminary stage of management.Local therapySurgical resection with or without limb salvage followed by radiation sickness and then chemo therapy is given.Chemotherapy remains back bone of the T/t for Ewings sarcoma, local T/t with surgery /or radiotherapy has important role in management of ES. The outcome of management is better in localized ES as compared to elusive outcome in metastatic disease or local recurrence.This case is presented in view of rarity to increase suspicion index for the presence of Ewings sarcoma. Early detection of Ewings sarcoma as chemotherapy and radiotherapy can limit further damage and progression of the disease can be done.REFERENCESJoseph M. Mirra, Piero Picci Ewings sarcoma In Bone tumors- clinical, radiologic, and pathologic correlations, volume two, Lea Febiger, Philadelphia, London1989, pp. 1088-1094.Stout AP. A tumor of the ulnar nerve. Proc NY Pathol Soc 1918 122-12.Ewing J. Diffuse endothelioma of bone. Proc NY Pathol Soc 1921 2117-24.Angervall L, Enzinger FM. Extraskeletal neoplasm resembling Ewings sarcoma. Cancer 1975 36240-51.Jaffe R, Santamaria M, Yunis EJ, Tannery NH, Ago stini RM Jr, Medina j, era/. The neuroectodermal tumor of bone. Am j Surg Pathol 1984 8885-98.Gurney JG, Swensen AR, Bulterys M. Malignant bone tumors. In Ries LA, etal, editors. Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents United States SEER Program 1975- 1995. Bethesda, MD National Cancer institute. SEER Program. NIH Pub. No. 99-4649 1999. p. 99-110.Zamora P, Garcia de Paredes ML, Gonzalez office M, Diaz MA, Escobar Y, Ordonez A, et al. Ewings tumor in brothers. An unusual observation. AmJ Clin Oncol 1986 9358-60.Kim, T.E., Ghazi G. Atkinson G. ct al. Ewings sarcoma of a lower extremity in an infant A therapeutic dilemma. Cancer, 5c 187, 1986.Nascimento AG, Unii KK, Pritchard DJ, Cooper KL, Dahlin DC. A clinicopathologic determine of 20 cases of large-cell (atypical) Ewings sarcoma of bone. AmJ Surg Pathol 1980 429-36.Khoury JD. Ewing sarcoma family of tumors. Adv Anat Pathol 2005 12212-20.Nilsson G, Wang M, Wejde J, Kreicbergs A, Larsson O. Detection of EWS/FL1- 1 by immunostaining. An adjunctive tool in diagnosis of Ewings sarcoma and primitive neuroectodermal tumour on cytological samples and paraffin-embedded archival material. Sarcoma 1999 325-32.Delattre O, Zucman J, Plougastel B, Desmaze C, MelotT, Peter M, et al. Gene fusion with an ETS DNA-binding domain caused by chromosome translocation in human tumours. Nature 1992 359162-5.Ludwig JA. Ewing sarcoma Historical perspectives, current state-of-the-art, and opportunities for targeted therapy in the future. Curr Opin Oncol 2008 20412-8.Abaan OD, Levenson A, Khan O, Furth PA, Uren A, Toretsky JA. PTPL1 is a direct transcriptional target of EWS-FL11 and modulates Ewings Sarcoma tumorigenesis. Oncogene 2005 242715-22.Greene FL, Page DL, Fleming ID , A. Fritz, C.M Balch, D.G. Haller et al, eds. AJCC cancer staging Manual. 6th ed. New York, NY Springer 2002.Rodriguez Galindo C, Liu T, Krasin MJ, Wu J, Billups CA, Daw NC, et al. Analysis of prognostic factors in Ewings sarcoma family of tumo rs review of St. Jude childrens research hospital studies cancer 2007 1 10375-84.Cotterill SJ, Ahrens S, Paulussen M, Jurgens HF, Voute PA, Gadner H et al. Prognostic factors in Ewings tumor of bone analysis of 975patient from the European intergroup cooperative Ewings sarcoma study group. J clin oncol 2000 183108-14.Bacci G, Longhi A, Ferrari S, Mercuri M, Versari M, Bertoni F. Prognostic factors in non-metastatic Ewings sarcoma tumor of bone An analysis of 579 patients treated at a single at a single institution with adjuvant or neo-adjuvant chemotherapy between 1972 and 1998.Acta oncol 2006 45469-75.Burgert EO Jr, Nesbit ME , Garnsey LA , Gehan EA, Herrmann J, Vietti TJ, et al. Multimodal therapy for management of non-pelvic , localized Ewings sarcoma of bone intergroup study IESS-II. J Clin Oncol 1990 81514-24.Granowetter L, Womer R, Devidas M, Karlio M, Wang C, Bernstein M, et al. Dose intensified compared with standard chemotherapy for non-metastatic Ewings sarcoma family of t umors a childrens oncology group study. J clin oncol 2009 272536-41.

Arbitration Clauses and Litigation :: Business Law Essays

Arbitration Clauses and Litigation More and more companies are including arbitrational clauses in their contracts. Whether it is in an employee application or an online selling website, arbitrational clauses are becoming abundant. But do these clauses hold up in the legal system? In the recent Paypal Corporation grounds, the arbitration clause was not enforced due to miniscule details such as clicking a mouse. The overruling of these clauses is becoming the norm as people are beginning to realize what they claim gotten themselves into. The same type of arbitrational clause dispute as the Paypal Corporation occurred in the case of BellSouth Mobility LLC v. Christopher. BellSouth institutionalized an arbitrational clause in its service apprehension that states that instead of suing in court, company and customer agree to arbitrate any and all dispute. In the event that the disagreement goes through arbitration, the arbitrator suffer not give punitive d amages to the plaintiff as well as only receive a limited amount of recovery money. When Christopher brought the case before an appellate court, the court sided in his favor claiming that the contract was substantively unconscionable due to the fact that BellSouth still had the right to bring Christopher to court over varied legal matters, giving them an unfair advantage. The case continued to go to trial court to see if the contract was procedurally unconscionable because of the small print of the arbitrational clause. Because Christopher was not fully forewarned about the arbitrational clause, and the fact that BellSouth took advantage of a client, BellSouth was found guilty (Hackbarth). A similar situation occurs in the case of Toppings v. Meritech Mortgage go (MMS). An elderly oppose, Margaret and Roger Toppings received a loan from Meritech Mortgage Services for thirty-seven thousand dollars with a monthly payment plan which would last for fifteen years, alo ng with thirty-six thousand dollars in interest. Before signing the loan, the couple asked for the document to be explained. At the time, the MMS lawyer was not coherent with the document but told the couple to read it at home after signing the document. Upon reading the contract, the Toppings came across the amount to be repaid in interest and tried to bring MSS to court for laborious to take advantage of the elderly.

Schlieffens Plan :: essays research papers

In 1904 France and Britain signed the Entente Cordiale. The reason for this alliance was to get a few countries classify together against the perceived threat of Germanys powerful regular army. Talk also began to add Russia to this alliance bringing all three, France, Britain and Russia together. As a result of these alliances the German military began to fear the possibility of being attacked from both sides all at once from France, Britain and Russia. Germany gave Alfred von Schlieffen, the German multitude Chief of Staff, the responsibility for coming up with a plan to defeat the allies. This plan was called the Schlieffen Plan.The Plan involved hitting France hard, with 90 percent of the total German army. The remaining 10 percent of the army would breathe back and defend again any Russian advances on Germany. Schlieffen thought that taking out France was the key to winning the war as quickly as possible. He thought that if France was defeated then Britain and Russia would n ot want to continue the fighting. Schlieffen estimated that it would take at least six weeks for Russia to organize there large army for an attack on Germany. This meant that it was very important that Germany was able to invade and defeat France before then.In August 1914 the Schlieffen Plan was put into effect and the German Army invaded Luxembourg and Belgium. Germany thought they would have no problem taking out the two cities but were unexpectedly held up by the Belgium army. While being held up there they were again surprised as to how quickly the Russian army was able to advance into East Prussia. Soon after which the British force also reached France and Belgium to fight against the Germans. The French and British fell back to the other side of the River Seine and regrouped. After which, another French moved in and attacked the Germans at rise force and managed to cut a huge hole in the German army splitting them into two groups. The French then entered the gap between the German forces trying to keep them divided. The Germans came very close to defeating the French army until the French brought in reserve troops to reinforce the front line. The Germans could not break finished the French and were soon after ordered by the German Chief of Staff to stop and retreat from the French.